4 See also Rasheed El-Enany's book with an analysis of 56 Arab writers' encounters with Europe and the West over more than 200 years (El-Enany 2006). 3 Khaled El-Rouayheb suggests a differentiation into three independent narratives of decline: an Ottomanist, an Arabist and an Islamist narrative of decline which served as backdrops for different projects of cultural and religious revivals (El-Rouayheb 2015, p. 2 For a more comprehensive concept of modernity, see (Jung 2017(Jung, 2018. In this article my own usage of the term roughly follows the definition of Asma Afsaruddin who defined Islamists as "activist individuals and groups in various contemporary Muslim-majority societies whose primary wish is to govern and be governed politically only by Islamic pinciples, understood by them to be immutably enshrined in the Sharia or the religious law" (Afsaruddin 2015, p. Moreover, the notion of political Islam and Islamism is not only dependent on the phenomenon observed but is equally molded by the observer and his or her specific disciplinary backgrounds (Volpi 2010).
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